Antoninus Pius, un imparat bun

https://www.thecollector.com/emperor-antoninus-pius/

ParKieren Johns

14 septembre 2020

Antoninus Pius: Empereur romain de la paix et de la piété (8 faits)

Supervisant un règne réputé dans l'Antiquité pour sa paix et sa piété, sa prudence et sa convenance, Antonin Pie aurait-il pu être le plus grand empereur romain?

Portrait buste de l'empereur Antoninus Pius , 138-161, via le Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (à gauche); avecscène Decursio de la base de la colonne d'Antonin Pie, 161 après JC, via Musei Vaticani, Cité du Vatican (à droite)

Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius, mieux connu dans l'histoire comme l'empereur romain Antoninus Pius, était en quelque sorte une anomalie romaine. L'histoire de cet empereur ne contient aucun récit de bravoure militaire, aucun discours enthousiasmant prononcé aux armées de l'empire, ni d'épisodes de privation et d'excès choquants. Au contraire, Antonin est resté en Italie, content de se concentrer sur la gestion de l'empire tel qu'il l'avait hérité d'Hadrien et de vivre autrement la vie d'un aristocrate romain exemplaire. Vous trouverez ci-dessous 8 faits sur la vie de l'empereur romain Antoninus Pius. 

Honore ton père (adoptif): Antoninus Pius et Hadrian

Portrait Buste de l'empereur Antoninus Pius , IIe siècle après JC, via le Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (à gauche); avec Portrait Buste de l'empereur Hadrien , 125-30 AD, via le British Museum, Londres (à droite)

Antonin est né en 86 après JC dans l'ancienne ville de Lanuvium - à une courte distance au sud-est de Rome - dans une famille aristocratique originaire de Nemausus (Nîmes moderne) dans le sud de la France. Son père, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, était consul en 89 après JC et avait une histoire familiale de soutien des côtés droits dans la politique impériale. Son père, également appelé Titus Aurelius Fulvus, avait sagement soutenu Vespasien pendant la guerre civile de 68-69 après JC et avait été dûment récompensé sous la dynastie flavienne.

La mort de son père peu de temps après son consulat a conduit Antonin à être élevé par son grand-père maternel, Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus, un aristocrate romain tout aussi respecté. Antonin a épousé Annia Galeria Faustina l'Ancien, avec qui il devait vivre un long et heureux mariage, entre 110 et 115 après JC. Faustine était en fait, liée à l'impératrice Vibia Sabina - malheureuse épouse d'Hadrien - rapprochant Antonin du cercle impérial . 

Le Temple de l'Hadrien déifié sur le Campus Martius à Rome , 145 AD, par Carole Raddato

Antoninus Pius a suivi le cheminement de carrière typique des jeunes et nobles hommes romains, servant de questeur, de préteur et excellant en tant que proconsul (gouverneur) d'Asie en 134-35 après JC. Déjà un favori d'Hadrien, ses compétences en tant qu'administrateur l'ont bien servi. Il a été nommé héritier d'Hadrien en février 138. Cependant, Antonin n'était pas le premier choix; il n'a été choisi par Hadrian que parce que Lucius Aelius était mort, et de plus, Antonin n'a été choisi qu'à la condition qu'il adopterait à son tour Marcus Annius Verus et Lucius Verus. 

À la mort d'Hadrien en 138, sa relation glaciale avec le Sénat - il avait ordonné le meurtre de plusieurs membres pendant son règne - les a vus réticents à accorder à l'empereur décédé les honneurs habituels, y compris la reconnaissance de son statut divin. Cependant, l'un des tout premiers actes du règne d'Antonin fut de faire pression sur le Sénat pour qu'il reconnaisse l'ancien empereur. On pense généralement que c'est cet acte de devoir pieux et filial envers son père adoptif qui lui vaut le titre de Pie . Cependant, il ne faut pas perdre de vue à quel point il aurait été bénéfique pour le nouvel empereur d'avoir un père divinisé pour légitimer son propre règne… Aussi pieux qu'il ait pu être, il est clair qu'Antoninus Pius était un opérateur politique avisé. 

Empereur romain établi, Empire établi: Antoninus Pius en ItalieEau-forte du Temple d'Antonin et Faustine dans le Forum Romain par Giovanni Battista Piranesi , 1760-1778, via le British Museum, Londres 

Le règne d'Antonin en tant qu'empereur est caractérisé par un sentiment dominant de stabilité et de sensibilité. Sa piété assurée par l'honneur rendu à son prédécesseur impérial, il était également allégué que le titre de Pie reflétait son intervention au nom des sénateurs condamnés par Hadrian.. L'administration impériale était, selon les preuves épigraphiques, particulièrement conservatrice sous le règne d'Antonin. Un groupe soudé de familles sénatoriales a travaillé avec l'empereur pour superviser la gestion de l'empire, et la confiance qu'Antonin leur a placée est indiquée par le fait qu'il n'a jamais quitté l'Italie pendant son règne. Ce style de gouvernement a été bien accueilli dans l'Antiquité, avec des écrivains antiques tardifs, tels qu'Aurelius Victor, louant le fait que les gens de l'empire le considéraient plus comme un parent ou un patron, qu'un maître ou un empereur.

Comme d'autres empereurs romains, Antoninus Pius a supervisé de vastes projets de construction autour de l'Empire, y compris à Rome. Son héritage architectural le plus célèbre dans la ville est le temple colossal d'Antonin et de Faustine dans le Forum Romanum, qui a ensuite été réutilisé par l'Église catholique en tant qu'église de San Lorenzo à Miranda. Une grande partie de son travail dans la ville elle-même s'est concentrée sur la reconstruction et la restauration de monuments importants autour de la ville. Ceux-ci comprenaient les allégations de l' Historia Augusta , le Pons Sublicius , le plus vieux pont sur le Tibre de la ville. C'était un thème récurrent du règne d'Antonin, notamment moins de la construction de monuments ostentatoires, et plutôt pour les projets qui ont profité à la population impériale - comme les thermes d'Ostie.- et les artères vitales des infrastructures impériales: routes, ponts et aqueducs.

Paix et prospérité: Antonin, l'armée et l'économieAureus d'or d'Hadrien avec portrait avers d'Antoninus Pius et représentation inversée de Concordia assis avec statuette de Spes (espoir) à gauche , 138 AD, via l'American Numismatic Society, New York

En plus de la piété, Antonin est bien connu comme un empereur romain pour son approche pacifique de la gestion impériale. Que ce soit ou non une cause ou une conséquence de sa décision de ne jamais quitter l'Italie, la période de son règne - de 138 à 161 après JC - fut la plus paisible de toute l'histoire impériale de Rome . Aucune guerre étrangère de conquête rapace ou de justice punitive n'a été menée contre les voisins de Rome pendant ces 23 années. Bien qu'il y ait eu plusieurs cas de troubles violents dans l'empire, ceux-ci étaient généralement axés sur la concurrence entre des administrateurs romains ambitieux, plutôt que contre des menaces extérieures. 

Le style du gouvernement d'Antonin était tel que même en cas de tentative d'usurpation, l'empereur permettait aux membres du Sénat de rendre justice à ceux qui avaient tenté de s'emparer du pouvoir. Ailleurs, il n'y a pas eu de grands soulèvements, comme Hadrien a dû écraser en Judée, et Antonin a choisi de respecter la stratégie impériale de son prédécesseur et a reconnu les limites de l'empire.

Scène Decursio à partir de la base de la colonne d'Antonin Pie , 161 AD, via Musei Vaticani, Cité du Vatican 

Les armées de l'empire, éloignées de l'Italie, sont tenues informées de leur nouvel empereur par sa présentation sur la monnaie. Il a peut-être choisi de ne pas voyager jusqu'aux frontières impériales pour les rencontrer en personne, mais ils auraient certainement été mis au courant de l'empereur et de ses idées à travers sa représentation numismatique. En fait, l'économie et la monnaie étaient au cœur du règne d'Antonin. Malgré ses vastes projets de construction autour de l'empire et dans la capitale, il réussit tout de même à laisser un surplus substantiel - environ deux millions et demi de sesterces - dans le trésor impérial au moment de sa mort. Néanmoins, il n'était pas avare en matière d'imposition, la suspendant notoirement dans les villes qui ont subi le malheur d'une catastrophe naturelle. 

Un amant, pas un combattant: Antoninus Pius et FaustinaPortrait de Faustine l'Ancienne, épouse d'Antoninus Pius , 140-60 après JC, via le J.Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles

Le mariage d'Antonin avec Faustine l'Ancienne était un mariage heureux et fortuit. Non seulement les liens familiaux de Faustine semblaient avoir directement profité à la carrière d'Antonin (et à son élévation éventuelle au rang d'héritier impérial), mais aussi, contrairement à d'autres mariages impériaux, il semble y avoir eu un amour et une affection authentiques. Ensemble, ils ont eu quatre enfants, deux fils et deux filles. Malheureusement pour le couple, trois des enfants - les deux fils et l'une des filles - sont tous morts avant 138 après JC. L'enfant survivante, Annia Galeria Faustina Minor (également connue sous le nom de Faustine la jeune ), a grandi pour devenir une future impératrice en tant qu'épouse. de Marc Aurèle et mère de Commode. En raison de son importance pour Antonin et de son rôle de mère impériale, elle a reçu le titre d' Augustapar le Sénat , ce qui était un signe de respect public et une indication claire de son statut.

Scène de l'apothéose de Faustine à partir de la base de la colonne d'Antonin Pie , 161 après JC, via Musei Vaticani, Cité du Vatican

Quand Faustine mourut en 141 après JC, Antoninus Pius fut manifestement dévasté par la perte de sa femme. Son chagrin a trouvé son expression dans un certain nombre de monuments magnifiques à travers la capitale impériale. Le principal d'entre eux, bien sûr, est le Temple de la Faustine déifiée - auquel s'ajouterait le culte d'Antonin après sa mort - dans le Forum Romanum. Le temple a été construit en l'honneur de sa déification par le Sénat, et un certain nombre de pièces ont été frappées portant la légende DIVA FAUSTINA pour s'assurer que la population impériale savait qu'elle avait rejoint les dieux. 

La représentation la plus évocatrice de cette déification est cependant présentée dans une sculpture en relief de la base de la colonne d'Antoninus Pius, qui est maintenant exposée dans les musées du Vatican. Installés dans le Campus Martius par Marc Aurèle pour honorer son prédécesseur décédé, les décorations en relief ornées sur la base (malheureusement tout ce qui survit du monument) comprend une représentation de Faustine et Antonin emportés sur le dos d'un génie ailé alors qu'ils monter aux cieux.

Évaluer Antonin: les sourcesArgent Antoninianus de Trajan Decius représentant Antoninus Pius sur l'avers et un aigle au revers , 250-51 AD, via l'American Numismatic Society, New York 

Donner un sens au règne d'Antonin peut s'avérer un défi pour les historiens. Bien qu'il ait supervisé peut-être la période la plus tranquille de l'histoire impériale de Rome, la vie et le règne de cet empereur ne sont pas bien enregistrés par les sources contemporaines. La seule biographie complète qui subsiste se trouve dans l' Historia Augusta , un recueil de biographies impériales produites à la fin du IVe siècle et souvent riche en mensonges scandaleux et en ragots sinistres. Cela étant dit, sous le règne des premiers empereurs, il est souvent possible de vérifier des éléments de vérité dans ce texte. Le récit du règne d'Antonin enregistré dans cette histoire de Cassius Dio , un sénateur grec écrivant sous le règne des empereurs sévères, est malheureusement presque complètement perdu; seuls les fragments subsistent.

Les historiens se sont demandé si le manque même de conflit dans l'empire sous le règne d'Antonin Pie était responsable de la pénurie d'historiographie contemporaine; il est révélateur que le règne de Lucius Verus et Marc Aurèle après Antonin - ravagé par la guerre, la violence et un terrible fléau - conduirait les historiens à reprendre leurs plumes une fois de plus.

Deux lettres inscrites entre Hadrien et Antonin Pius , 129 AD, dans le Bouleutrion, Ephèse, par Carole Raddato

Le règne d'Antoninus Pius peut également être reconstitué en utilisant les anecdotes et les traditions qui ont été préservées par les historiens ultérieurs. Le futur empereur Julien, écrivant au 4 e siècle, présente la minutie économique d'Antonin, le caractérisant comme un « fendeur de cumin ». L'historien Eutrope offre une représentation plus équilibrée et moins ironique d'Antonin, décrivant sa bonne réputation: « un homme de haut caractère, qui peut à juste titre être comparé à Numa Pompilius [le deuxième roi mythique de Rome, et un homme de loi] ». Ailleurs, le règne d'Antonin peut être reconstruit grâce à des preuves archéologiques, y compris la numismatique (monnaie), archéologique et épigraphique (inscriptions). En effet, les preuves épigraphiques sont riches en fournissant des exemples de la relation que l'empereur romain entretenait avec les provinces impériales qu'il n'a jamais visitées; de nombreux exemples survivent de ses réponses aux pétitions des villes de l'empire qui ont sollicité l'intervention de l'empereur pour résoudre un problème local.

Les bords de l'Empire et au-delà: Antonin, la Grande-Bretagne et la ChineLe romain 'Bridgeness Slab' , 142 AD, via le National Museum of Scotland, Édimbourg

Malgré sa décision de rester en Italie, Antoninus Pius est néanmoins resté activement impliqué dans l'administration de l'empire et était bien conscient du monde extérieur à Rome. Bien que règne de paix, Antonin ordonna en fait une incursion agressive dans le nord de la Grande-Bretagne. Dirigés par Quintus Lollius Urbicus, gouverneur d'origine africaine (numide), les Romains ont envahi le sud de l'Écosse et remporté un certain nombre de victoires notables et repoussant la frontière impériale au-delà de celle établie par le mur d'Hadrien. 

Pour marquer la nouvelle frontière impériale - qui allait du Firth of Forth au Firth of Clyde - le Mur d'Antonin a été construit. Le mur d'Antonin était différent de la fortification hadrianique antérieure en ce qu'il était principalement construit en gazon et non en pierre. Le manque d'avantages à acquérir ce territoire supplémentaire - la terre était stérile - et les coûts liés à la gestion de la nouvelle fortification ont conduit certains à se demander si toute la campagne avait été menée uniquement pour fournir à Antonin une modeste victoire militaire sur laquelle renforcer davantage son légitimité en tant qu'empereur.

Le mur d'Antonin , 142 AD, via The Herald Scotland, Glasgow

Ce n'était pas seulement le nord qui intéressait Antonin. Il était l'empereur responsable de ce que l'on croit être la première mission diplomatique de Rome en Chine! Un groupe de personnes prétendant être envoyé de Rome est arrivé en Chine, à la cour de l'empereur Huan (de la dynastie Han) en 166 après JC; enregistrés dans le Hou Hanshu , ou Livre des Han ultérieurs , ils sont décrits comme ayant été envoyés par le roi de Daqin, ce qui signifie Rome. L'historien chinois précise qu'il s'agit du premier cas de contact direct entre la Chine et Rome! 

Bien que l'empereur en question puisse également être Marc Aurèle (qui régnait en 166 après JC et également appelé Antonin), la découverte de médaillons d'or du règne d'Antonin trouvés en Extrême-Orient indique la relation entre les deux grandes puissances. Un certain nombre de pièces de monnaie romaines de toute la période impériale ont été trouvées en Chine, notamment à Xi'an, et il semble que les Romains désiraient les produits de luxe produits en Extrême-Orient, notamment la soie.

Une succession divisée: Antonin, Marc Aurèle et Lucius VerusPortrait de l'empereur Marc Aurèle , 161-80 après JC, via le Walters Art Museum, Baltimore (à gauche); avec buste en marbre de l'empereur Lucius Verus , 161-70 après JC, via le British Museum, Londres (à droite)

Bien que la mort prématurée des enfants mâles du mariage d'Antonin et de Faustine signifiait que la succession du pouvoir impérial devrait impliquer des acteurs extérieurs, cela avait déjà été garanti par Hadrian. Son adoption d'Antonin comme son héritier reposait sur le futur empereur. À son tour, il a adopté Marcus Annius Verus et Lucius Verus, parents de Lucius Aelius, le premier choix d'Hadrien comme successeur qui l'avait précédé. 

Pour confirmer l'adoption des jeunes hommes dans la maison impériale, Antonin fit annuler à Marcus ses fiançailles avec une Ceionia Fabia. Au lieu de cela, il devait être marié à Faustine la Jeune, le seul enfant survivant d'Antonin et de Faustine. Leur implication dans l'État dès leur plus jeune âge a encore renforcé leur position d'héritiers impériaux. En 140 après JC, Marcus avait déjà été nommé consul (en partenariat avec Antonin), et le titre de César , une indication claire de son statut dans l'empire.

Portrait en marbre du co-empereur Lucius Verus , 161-69, via le Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Le long règne d'Antonin, son inclination pour la paix et généralement un bon gouvernement signifiaient qu'il était l'un des empereurs romains les plus rares à être mort de vieillesse. Quand il mourut finalement en 161 après JC, il avait 74 ans. Il montrait des signes de débilitation et de vieillesse depuis un certain temps; l' Historia Augusta rapporte que sa stature autrefois imposante a été diminuée par la baisse de l'âge à tel point qu'il a pris l'habitude de porter des haubans en bois pour le maintenir debout ! 

Fidèle à son caractère, Antonin avait même le sens pragmatique de mourir en bon ordre. Ayant réalisé que son état se détériorait - une portion particulièrement importante de «fromage alpin» aurait provoqué une fièvre désagréable - il lui appela Marc Aurèle et lui confia officiellement l'empire. Il mourut dans son domaine à Lorium, mais son corps fut renvoyé à Rome où ses restes furent enterrés dans le mausolée d'Hadrien. Comme sa femme bien-aimée Faustine, Antonin était également divinisé.

Antoninus Pius et les "cinq bons empereurs''Statue d'Antoninus Pius en nu héroïque , dans le Museo Palazzao Massimo, Rome 

Il faudrait encore quelque temps avant qu'un empereur jouisse d'un règne aussi long qu'Antonin; Ce n'est que lorsque Constantin le Grand, au début du IVe siècle, qu'un empereur l'évincera en tant que deuxième monarque romain régnant. Son prédécesseur Marc Aurèle continuerait sans doute à surpasser Antonin en tant que paradigme d'un bon empereur, mais en supervisant un règne qui a inauguré des décennies de guerre intestinale, dressant Romain contre barbare et Romain contre Romain, le zénith du zénith impérial de Rome avait sans doute déjà passé au moment où Antinous mourut en 161 après JC.

La paix et la piété qui ont caractérisé son règne ont vu le public moderne se détourner d'Antoninus Pius. Contrairement à la folie de Néron , à la cruauté de Commode, ou même à la dépravation d'Elagabale , des siècles de scénaristes, dramaturges et artistes ont trouvé peu de drame et de scandale à piller ici. Cependant, alimentés par les éloges des Romains eux-mêmes, les historiens de Rome ont été particulièrement gentils avec Antonin. Sa direction ferme mais juste - et en particulier ses relations avec le Sénat (par opposition à une autocratie manifeste) - se sont révélées un terrain fertile à partir duquel des éloges effusifs ont poussé. 

Portrait d'Antoninus Pius , 140-50 AD, via Museo del Prado, Madrid

Le plus célèbre de tous est peut-être Edward Gibbon, l'historien des Lumières et auteur du Déclin et de la Chute de l'Empire romain entre 1776 et 1788. Il présenta à Antoninus Pius l'avant-dernier de ses «cinq bons empereurs». En caractérisant Nerva, Trajan , Hadrien, Antonin et Marc Aurèle en tant que tels, il a écrit que « si un homme était appelé à fixer la période de l'histoire du monde pendant laquelle la condition de la race humaine était la plus heureuse et la plus prospère, il nommerait, sans hésitation, ce qui s'est passé de la mort de Domitien à l'accession de Commode». Il n'a peut-être pas été le premier choix d'Hadrien comme successeur, mais rares sont ceux qui soutiendraient qu'Antoninus Pius a laissé à ses propres héritiers impériaux un empire en très belle forme. C'était une hauteur que, sans doute, elle n'atteindrait plus jamais.

KIEREN JOHNS

Kieren est un écrivain contributeur basé au Royaume-Uni qui étudie actuellement pour un doctorat en histoire classique et ancienne, enquêtant sur la représentation et l'autorité des empereurs de Severan. Il est passionné de partager son intérêt pour le passé avec le plus de gens possible. Loin de ses recherches, Kieren s'intéresse également aux arts, à la littérature et aux voyages.

Istorici greci

                                         ISTORICI GRECI  DIN ANTICHITATE

Herodot (484 BC - 425 BC)

Fragment d'Hérodote, papyrus d'Oxyrhynque

Ἡροδότου Ἁλικαρνησσέος ἱστορίης ἀπόδεξις ἥδε, ὡς μήτε τὰ γενόμενα ἐξ ἀνθρώπων τῷ χρόνῳ ἐξίτηλα γένηται, μήτε ἔργα μεγάλα τε καὶ θωμαστά, τὰ μὲν Ἕλλησι τὰ δὲ βαρϐάροισι ἀποδεχθέντα, ἀκλεᾶ γένηται, τά τε ἄλλα καὶ δι' ἣν αἰτίην ἐπολέμησαν ἀλλήλοισι. ================================

« Hérodote d'Halicarnasse présente ici les résultats de son Enquête afin que le temps n'abolisse pas le souvenir des actions des hommes et que les grands exploits accomplis soit par les Grecs, soit par les Barbares, ne tombent pas dans l'oubli ; il donne aussi la raison du conflit qui mit ces deux peuples aux prises. » =======================================

15 Ancient Greek Historians And How They’ve Shaped Ancient History

The Ancient Greeks created history as a way to record, study, and understand the past. These are the fifteen most important Ancient Greek Historians and their works.

ByRobert C. L. Holmes

August 20, 2020

Harris Homer Roll, 1st-2nd century, via The British Library, London (background); with 

Seated Man Writing, 525-475 BC, via Musée du Louvre, Paris (foreground)

During Classical Antiquity, the ancient Greeks developed the discipline that we today know as history. Ancient Greek Historians composed their works by interviewing eyewitnesses, studying documents, and drawing on earlier historical research. Some ancient Greek Historians even actively participated in or witnessed the events they described themselves. With the passage of time, the writings of many ancient Greek Historians have been lost; it exists only as fragments, quotations, or references in later works. Regardless of whether or not their work has survived in its entirety, the Ancient Greek Historians shaped our understanding of Classical Antiquity and the study of history.

Ancient Greek Historians And Fathers Of History 

Homer Roman Bust of Homer, 2nd century BC, via The British Museum, London (left); with Ostrakon with Coptic lines from Homer’s Iliad, 580-640 AD, via The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (right)

Almost nothing is known of Homer, the legendary author of the Iliad and Odyssey; epic poems which tell the story of the Trojan War and its aftermath. Homer’s identity, the period during which he lived, and the circumstances in which he composed these poems have been hotly debated for centuries. Some even go so far as to question his very existence. What cannot be questioned is the influence that his works have had on Western Historiography and the development of history in Ancient Greece.

During Antiquity, the Trojan War was the first “historical event” to be recorded in Ancient Greece and became foundational. Homer’s works were widely read and were incorporated into the educational systems of many schools of philosophy. As a result, numerous Greek historians drew inspiration from Homer when they composed their own histories. The Trojan War also served as a beginning point for ancient Greek historians as it was often the earliest event that they had any knowledge of and its heroes were tied to the foundational myths and legends of various tribes, dynasties, cities, regions, and kingdoms. Some, however, criticized Homer for his treatment of the gods and doubted his version of the events of the Trojan War; though they all tended to accept that it had happened. 

Herodotus (c. 484-425 BC)

Roman Marble Bust of Herodotus, 2nd century, via The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (left); 

with Book Illustration for The Histories of Herodotus by Anton Woensam & Eucharius Hirtzhorn, 1526, via The British Museum, London (right)

Herodotus, the so-called “Father of History,” was born in the Greek city of Halicarnassus which was then part of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. For reasons that are unclear, but were perhaps motivated by local politics, Herodotus traveled extensively throughout the Near East and Eastern Mediterranean and is known to have visited Samos, Egypt, Tyre, Babylon, Athens, Magna Graecia, and Macedonia. His great work, The Histories, was conceived as an attempt to explain the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars. This work, which begins in the mythical period, focuses the years between 550-479 BC and spans 9 books

Herodotus included a wealth of information in The Histories and has a tendency towards long digressions on anthropological and ethnographic matters. Although his work inspired many later historians, Herodotus himself remains controversial and has been called the “Father of Lies.” His work contains many legendary and fanciful accounts which later historians accused him of making up for entertainment value. However, Herodotus himself states that he merely reports what he has been told and even notes when he does not believe his source. Today, a number of the more fanciful aspects of The Histories, such as the Amazons, have been confirmed through archaeology. 

Thucydides (c. 460-400 BC)Portrait Head of Thucydides, 2nd Century AD, via The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles (left); with ‘Thucidides…von dem…Peloponnenser kreig’ book in German by Jorg Breu I, Jorg Breu II, and Hans Schaufelein, 1533, via The British Museum, London

A well connected Athenian aristocrat, Thucydides owned a gold mine, served as a general during the Peloponnesian War, survived the Plague of Athens, and was eventually exiled from Athens for the failure of a military campaign in Thrace. He is best known for his History, which is today commonly rendered as The History of the Peloponnesian War. This work spans 8 books and describes the events of a period that roughly encompasses 438-411 BC. As the work ends rather abruptly, it is believed that Thucydides died suddenly and unexpectedly.

Thucydides is, along with Herodotus, regarded as the “Father of History;” his more scientific approach which did not acknowledge divine intervention, along with his non-judgmental style which sought to report events in an unbiased manner, has led to him also being regarded as the first “true historian.” However, he also freely acknowledges making up appropriate speeches for the figures in his History, based on what he felt that they ought to have said. Nevertheless, Thucydides’ influence on later ancient Greek historians and Western Historiography was enormous. 

Ancient Greek Historians Become Professionals 

Xenophon (c. 430-354 BC)Portrait of Xenophon by John Chapman & J. Wilkes, 1807, via The British Museum, London (left); with Xenophon’s Hellenica, 15th century, via The British Library, London (right)

Born in Athens, Xenophon was an ancient Greek historian, soldier, and philosopher who marched an army of 10,000 Greek mercenaries out of Persia, associated with Socrates and Plato, and had close ties to Sparta. His work as a historian reflects his experiences as it includes: The Anabasis, which details the March of the 10,000; The Cyropaedia, which describes the early life of Cyrus the Great; Agesilaus, a biography of Agesilaus II a powerful king of Sparta; and Polity of the Lacedaemonians, a history of Sparta and its institutions.

Xenophon’s most important work, however, was the Hellenica or “writings on Greek subjects,” which covers the years 411-362 BC and spans a total of 7 books. This history picked up where Thucydides left off and was primarily intended to be read by Xenophon’s friends, who had participated in the events describes. As such, the Hellenica literally begins after Thucydides’ final sentence. Overall, the Hellenica was for Xenophon a deeply personal project and although he follows Thucydides stylistically his pro-Spartan and anti-democracy bias is noticeable.

Ctesias (5th Century BC)Artaxerxes II, King of Persia published by Gerard de Jode, 1585, via The British Museum, London (left); with Attic Red-Figure Aryballos depicting a Greek Physician treating a Patient, 480-70 BC, via Musée du Louvre, Paris (right) 

Ctesias was a Greek living in Cnidus, a Carian city in Anatolia, this ancient Greek Historian lived under the Achaemenid Empire. A royal physician to the Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II, he accompanied the king on various expeditions and treated his wounds. Ctesias had access to the royal archives of the Achaemenid Empire, which he drew upon to construct his histories.

He is known for two works, the Persica and the Indica. The Indica reflects Achaemenid knowledge and beliefs about India and is known only as fragments and quotations preserved in the works of other historians. Ctesias’ other work, the Persica, spanned 23 books and was originally written in opposition to Herodotus and his account. The Persica was highly valued and widely quoted in antiquity, although even then there were doubts about its reliability. 

Theopompus (c. 380-318 BC)Tetradrachm of Philip II, 355-48 BC, via The British Museum, London (left); with Terracotta of an Old Man teaching a Boy to Write, late 4th century, via The British Museum, London (right)

Theopompus was born on the island of Chios, this ancient Greek Historian spent time in Athens after his father was exiled where he studied rhetoric and built a network of contacts. With the support of Alexander the Great, he was able to return to Chios, but was again exiled and went to the court of Ptolemaic Egypt. With his training, contacts, and relative wealth, Theopompus was well equipped to be a historian.

His chief works were the Hellenica, which deals with the history of Greece from 411-394 BC, and the Philippica, which describes the reign of Philip II. Both works are known as fragments but the Philippica was widely quoted by later historians. Theopompus was also criticized for his lengthy digressions, love of incredible or romantic stories, and the lengths he would go to in censuring his subjects for what he perceived as their failings. 

Cleitarchus (c. mid-late 4th Century BC)Drachm of Alexander the Great, 328-20 BC, via The British Museum, London (left); with Silver coin depicting Ptolemy I Soter, 323-284 BC, via The British Museum, London (right)

Cleitarchus was one of the earliest ancient Greek historians of Alexander the Great, he may have even accompanied the Macedonian army during its campaigns. Later he remained active at the court of Ptolemy I Soter, founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. As such, he was able to witness first hand or access witnesses to the events he described. His only known work, the History of Alexander, has survived in the form of thirty fragments.

Cleitarchus’ work, though now lost, was very popular during Antiquity and was widely read; it was the most famous history of Alexander the Great. Many later historians, such as Plutarch, Aelian, Strabo, Quintus Curtius, and Justin quote it in their works. It also served to inspire what became known as the Alexander Romances. However, it also received its share of criticism for Cleitarchus’ exaggerated writing style, which impinged on its trustworthiness. 

Marsyas of Pella (c. 356-294 BC)Silver Tetradrachm of Demetrius Poliocretes, 289-88 BC, via The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (left); with Marble Head of a Youth with a horned diadem, 3rd-2nd century BC, via The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (right)

Marsyas was a Macedonian of noble birth, this ancient Greek historian appears to have been a relative of Antigonus I Monophthalmus (One-Eyed), a general of Alexander the Great’s who ruled large parts of Asia. It appears that Marsyas and Antigonus were stepbrothers. Later, Marsyas commanded a division of Demetrius Poliocretes’ (The Besieger) fleet at the Battle of Salamis in 306 BC. No mere armchair historian, Marsyas took an active role in public affairs.

His major work was the Makedonika which consisted of 10 books and described the history of Macedonia from the earliest times to about 331 BC. This work was repeatedly cited by later Roman and Byzantine authors. He is also credited with writing a history of Alexander the Great’s education, and possibly a treatise on the antiquities of Athens

Duris of Samos (c. 350-281 BC)Fragment of a Samian amphora with maker’s mark, 350-00 BC, via The British Museum, London (left); with Portrait of Alcibiades, 1775-1800, via The British Museum, London (right)

Claiming descent from the infamous Alcibiades of Athens, Duris was an ancient Greek historian and at some point the tyrant of Samos. His main work was the Histories (also known as Macedonica and Hellenica), which describes the history of Greece and Macedonia from 371-281 BC. His narrative was continued by the later historian Phylarchus. 

Duris was an exemplar of “tragic history,” a new style or school of historical writing which placed a greater value on entertainment and excitement rather than factual reporting. During Antiquity, few later historians praised Duris; disparaging his style, his composition, and doubting his trustworthiness. However, many still utilized his work. Today, his historical work is known only in fragments and includes his Histories, On Agathocles, and the Annals of Samos.

Timaeus (c. 345-250 BC)Limestone Funerary Relief, 325-00 BC, via The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (left); with Terracotta Vase, 3rd-2nd century BC, via The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (right)

Born in Sicily, the ancient Greek historian Timaeus was forced to flee to Athens where he studied under the philosopher Isocrates. His greatest work, The Histories, spanned an estimated 40 books. It focused primarily on Greece, but also discussed events in Magna Graecia (Italy & Sicily); and it covered the earliest history of Greece to the time of the First Punic War. He worked diligently to develop a method of reckoning chronology based on the Olympiad cycle, the Archons of Athens, Ephors of Sparta, and priestesses of Argos which was used by many other historians.

Timaeus’ work circulated widely during Antiquity and was utilized by many other historians. He was, however, criticized by later historians, such as Polybius, for being unfair towards his predecessors, showing bias towards his subjects, being an armchair researcher, obsessing over trivial matters, and a general frigidity. On the other hand others, like Cicero, praised his work. Today only fragments of the 38th book of his Histories, and a reworking of its last section On Pyrrhus have survived; along with a reference to a history of the cities and kings of Syria, and The Victors at Olympia, a chronological piece that probably functioned as an appendix. 

The Later Ancient Greek Historians 

Phylarchus (3rd Century BC)Copper Coin of Pyrrhus of Epirus, 295-72 BC, via The British Museum, London (left); with Silver Tetradrachm of Cleomenes III of Sparta, 227-22 BC, via Alpha Bank Culture (right)

Three different cities are given as the birthplace of the ancient Greek historian Phylarchus; Athens and Sicyon in Greece and Naucratis in Egypt. His greatest work, The Histories, spanned an estimated 28 books. It is known to have covered a 52 year period beginning with Pyrrhus of Epirus (272 BC) and ending with the death of Cleomenes III of Sparta (220BC); though based on fragments it may have actually begun with the death of Alexander the Great. Phylarchus described events in Greece, Macedonia, Egypt, Cyrene, and elsewhere.

Much of what we know of Phylarchus as a historian comes from criticisms that were leveled against him. Polybius and much later Plutarch charge him with bias and falsifying history through partiality. He was also accused of trying to sway readers through his overly graphic descriptions of war and violence. Nonetheless, many ancient historians borrowed from his work. His works are known to include the Histories, The story of Antiochus and Eumenes of Pergamum which described a war between monarchs, Epitome of myth on the apparition of Zeus, On Discoveries, Digressions, and Agrapha which probably dealt with obscure mythological aspects.

Polybius (c. 200-118 BC)A Difficult Passage by Clarkson Stanfield, 1793-1867, via The British Museum, London (left); with Excerpts from Polybius’ Histories, 15th century, via The British Library, London (right)

Polybius was born into a prominent family from the city of Megalopolis in Greece. He was an active member of the Achaean League before he was taken to Rome as a hostage. Whilst in Rome, Polybius was able to gain entry into the most elite social circles where he made many friends and contacts. As a result, he was able to witness and participate in many of the most important political events of the period; even accompanying and advising his Roman friends on military expeditions.

With his unparalleled access, Polybius was able to write a number of historical works, the most important of which was the Histories. Originally spanning some 40 books, today only 5 exist in their entirety. The Histories cover the period of 264-146 BC and mainly focus on Rome’s rise as a world power and its conflict with Carthage. Polybius also wrote several other works, which are now lost, and is considered one of the founding fathers of Roman historiography. His works were widely utilized by later historians, though he was often criticized for his dense writing style.

Agatharchides (2nd Century BC)Egyptian Writing Tablet, 332-31 BC, via The British Museum, London (left); with Pottery Jar lid showing four fish, 3rd-1st century BC, via The British Museum, London (right)

Agatharchides was born in Cnidus, a Carian city in Western Anatolia, he appears to have been a sort of assistant of servile origin. His major work is On the Erythraean Sea (Red Sea), which besides providing historical, geographical, and anthropological details about the region, advocates for a military invasion from Ptolemaic Egypt. The work was never finished as a rebellion or purge prevented Agatharchides from accessing official records in Alexandria.

On the Erythraean Sea spanned 5 books, of which almost the entire fifth book has survived. Agatharchides was praised for his clear, dignified writing style so that his work saw continued use even when it was superseded by more up to date material. It was quoted by numerous later historians such as Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Pliny the Elder, Aelian, and Josephus. Agatharchides also wrote other works, Affairs in Asia (10 Books) and Affairs in Europe (49 Books), which were not widely known and only survive as fragments. 

Posidonius (c.135-51 BC)Roman Statue of a Wounded Gaul, 200 BC, via Musée du Louvre, Paris (left); with Celtic Belt Clasp, 2nd century BC, via The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (right)

Nicknamed “the Athlete” as a result of his intellectual prowess in many fields, Posidonius was considered the greatest polymath of his age. Born in the Hellenistic city of Apamea in Syria, he was educated in Athens and traveled across the Mediterranean World. His travel brought his to Greece, Hispania, Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia, Gaul, Liguria, North Africa, and the Adriatic Coast. His historical work the Histories, continued where Polybius’ world history left off; covering the period of 146-88BC, it supposedly spanned 52 books. Today, almost all of Posidonius’ Histories have been lost.

The Histories of Posidonius continued the narrative of Roman expansion and dominance, begun by Polybius. Yet although Posidonius, like Polybius, was sympathetic to Rome he viewed historical events through a more psychological lens. He saw and understood human passions and follies but did not pardon or excuse them in his writings. As a result of his philosophical training, Posidonius also considered environmental or climatic factors, which he believed influenced how people acted or behaved. 

Diodorus Siculus (c. 90-30 BC)The Abduction of Helen by Italian Giuseppe Salviati, mid 16th century, via The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Diodorus Siculus was a Greek from the city of Agyrium in Sicily, almost nothing else is known about his life. His great historical work was the Bibliotheca Historica or Historical Library. This was an immense work that originally spanned some 40 books. To complete this epic work, Diodorus Siculus drew upon the research of numerous earlier historians. However, much of the Bibliotheca Historica has been lost to time, so that only books 1-5 and 11-20 survive; along with some fragments and quotations preserved in the works of later historians.

Julius Caesar by Italian Andrea di Pietro di Marco Ferrucci, 1512-14, via The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 

The Bibliotheca Historica was intended to be a universal history; that is it attempted to present the history of all mankind in a single coherent unit. As such, it was divided into three parts. The first section dealt with mythic history up to the destruction of Troy. The second and third sections covered the periods between the destruction of Troy and the death of Alexander, and from the death of Alexander to the beginning of Caesar’s Gallic Wars. Geographically, his work spanned the known world and included Egypt, India, Arabia, Scythia, Mesopotamia, North Africa, Nubia, and Europe. 

Legacy Of Ancient Greek Historians 

Although they lived thousands of years ago, ancient Greek historians have left a lasting mark on modern western society. From the ancient Homeric epic came the modern journey of the hero, and from the documentation of ancient warfare, historians have been able to study the military conquests of Antiquity and develop modern war tactics. The documentation of judicial, political, militaristic, cultural and artistic history in Antiquity has had an incalculable impact on modern western culture. Without the contributions of these ancient Greek historians, our world would look very different.

ROBERT C. L. HOLMES

Robert Holmes has an MA in Ancient & Medieval History and a BA in Archaeology. He is an independent historian and author, who specializes in the Military History of the Ancient and Medieval World and has published over a dozen articles on related topics. Originally from Massachusetts, he now lives in Florida where he works doing public history leading tours, giving lectures, and educating people about the local history.

Epoca elenistica (323-30 i.e.n.)

 Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας ...

Hellenistic Period: Art In The Onset Of Globalization (323-30 BC)

The Hellenistic period lasted three hundred years and is characterized by innovation, globalization and cultural connectivity through a common language and standardized education.

ByMaria Dragatakis

July 12, 2020

Detail from the Battle of Issus mosaic of Alexander the Great and his horse Bucephalus, 100 BC, Archaeological Museum of Napoli

The Hellenistic Period started in 323 BC. after the sudden death of Alexander the Great at the age of 33. His thirteen-year rule was in its entirety a military campaign, one of the most successful and devastating military conquests in human history. He created an empire that stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Himalaya Mountains. His military genius, combined with adept diplomacy and his dream of spreading the Greek language, education, and values to the known world were the cornerstones of the Hellenistic Empire. 

Upon his death, the empire was divided into a number of kingdoms, ruled by descendants of his dynasty. It initially thrived on the foundations set by Alexander but eventually succumbed to the threat of the next super-power that emerged, the Roman Empire. The Hellenistic Period ends in 30 BC., when the Romans conquered and took control of Egypt, the last descendant of Alexander the legendary Queen Cleopatra was the illustrious epilogue of this great saga.

The Hellenistic World – The Aftermath Of Alexander The Great

Statuette of Alexander the Great, 2nd century BC, copy of a from 320 BC by Lysippus, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles

Alexander the Great, son of Philip II and Olympias, was nurtured by Homer’s Iliad. He was brought up to believe that he was the descendant of Hercules and Achilles. Like these great heroes and warriors he was also destined for great deeds. When he was 13-years old, the great philosopher Aristotle became his tutor and remained his mentor all through his short life. He was a unique amalgam of fierce and brutal warrior combined with a profound nature, a propagator of culture, art, education, and social values that characterized the Hellenistic Period.

At the age of 20, Alexander embarked on his long military campaign with an entourage of scribes, artisans, language, and philosophy tutors commissioned to keep meticulous records of places, people, and culture and to establish arts and cultural centers in the conquered territories. For the next 13 years, he conquered Asia Minor, Egypt, the Middle East, devastated the Persian Empire, and reached the Himalayan peaks in India and modern Pakistan. 

A map of the route that Alexander the Great took to conquer Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Bactria

In the vast territories that he conquered, Alexander founded more than 20 cities that bore his name, most of them East of the Tigris River. The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become an important Mediterranean urban and cultural center. The cities’ locations reflected trade routes, as well as defensive positions, and formed an interlinked cultural network through shared traditions of Greek societies and the Greek language.

Hellenistic ArchitectureThe Pharos (Lighthouse) of Alexandria, Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum, San Jose

The Lighthouse of Alexandria, destroyed by an earthquake in 1300 AD., was one of the Seven Wonders of the World and the most famous lighthouse in antiquity. Built around 280 BC., by the descendants of Alexander, the Ptolemy Dynasty that ruled Egypt. It was a technological accomplishment and is the prototype of all lighthouses since. It stood on the island of Pharos in the harbor of Alexandria and it was more than 350 feet (110 meters) high.

For when he was master of Egypt, designing to settle a colony of Grecians

there, he resolved to build a large and populous city, and give it

his own name….

one night in his sleep to see a wonderful vision; a grey-headed old

man, of a venerable aspect, appeared to stand by him, and pronounce

these verses:-

“An island lies, where loud the billows roar,

Pharos they call it, on the Egyptian shore.” 

Alexander the Great, by Plutarch translated into English by John Dryden

Another example of fine architectural grandeur and indicative of affluence, both in wealth and culture, lies in the great Hellenistic city of Pergamon, in Asia Minor. The Great Temple of Zeus and Athena is a unique monument of ancient Greece, considered a masterpiece of Hellenistic Period sculpture. The Great Altar built in the 2nd century BC., as part of the royal residence. After its rediscovery in the late 19th century, selected architectural parts as well as the sculptural decorations of the altar were taken to Berlin, exhibited today as a monumental partial reconstruction in the Pergamon Museum of Berlin. 

Base Frieze of The Pergamon Altar, Pergamon Museum, Berlin

Hellenistic kingship prevailed as the dominant political system in the Greek East for nearly three centuries following the death of Alexander the Great. Simultaneously, increased commercial and cultural exchanges, and the greater mobility of educators, artisans, scientists, led to the establishment of a koine (common language). It developed as the ‘lingua franca’ throughout the Hellenistic world and continued to be so all through the Roman Empire and until the emergence of the Byzantine Empire and Emperor Justinian in the mid-6th century AD.

Wealth And Collection In The Hellenistic World

During the Hellenistic Period, royal families lived in splendor and opulence. Palaces with extravagant banquet halls, lavishly decorated rooms, and majestic gardens. Extravagant wealth surrounded the royal palaces and the courts of the elite, ruling class, and traders, who regularly held festivals and symposia to flaunt their riches. An affluent society with prominent patrons of the arts, commissioning public works of architecture and sculpture, as well as private luxury items that asserted their wealth and social status. 

The Banquet of Cleopatra by Gerard Hoet, 17th-18th century, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles

Hellenistic Period Jewelry 

Jewelry, for example, as a status symbol acquired elaborate forms and incorporated rare and unique stones. The open trade routes to eastern provinces supplied a wealth of materials, precious and semiprecious stones, and enhanced techniques.

The Karpenisi Treasure from the Stathatos Collection, The National Archaeological Museum of Athens 

A perfect sample of goldsmith’s work is the “Karpenisi Treasure” named after the location of its excavation. Two display cases, in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, with artifacts associated with female adornment (perhaps three or four ensembles) dating from the late fourth to the early 2nd century BC. 

The most impressive displays are the three hairnets made of gold with repousse busts of Aphrodite and Artemis, the diadem with the Herculean knot in the center decorated with off-white glass paste and the superb gold belt with leaves, flowers, and fruits, insects and birds, embroidered with colored enamel, inlaid semi-precious stones, and glass. A small gold miniature temple, from the same group, depicting in relief a Satyr and Dionysus with a panther was possibly of funerary use. 

The Ganymede Jewellery collection including a matched set of earrings, necklace, pins, bracelets, and a ring, 330-00 BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Hellenistic period jewelry was of a great variety, produced to satisfy several needs of the wealthy customers and in great assortments —earrings, necklaces, pendants, pins, bracelets, armbands, thigh bands, finger rings, wreaths, diadems, and other elaborate hair ornaments. Matched sets were common and bracelets came in pairs worn according to the Persian fashion. Often ornate with pearls and stunning gems or semi-precious stones—emeralds, garnets, carnelians, banded agates, sardonyx, chalcedony, and rock crystal. Artists also incorporated colorful enamel inlays that dramatically contrasted with their intricate gold settings. Minute details were added of plants and animals, or mythological creatures were popular designs. 

Hellenistic gold, garnet, and agate necklace and earrings, 1st century BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art

In Hellenistic times, jewelry often passed from generation to generation as family heirlooms or was dedicated to sanctuaries as an offering to the gods. There are records of headdresses, necklaces, bracelets, rings, brooches, and pins in temple and treasury inventories, as, for example, at Delos. Hordes of Hellenistic Period jewelry that were buried for safekeeping in antiquity were unearthed in excavations. 

Some of the best-preserved examples, however, come from tombs where jewelry was usually placed on the body of the deceased. Some of these pieces were made specifically for interment; most, however, were worn during life. In the early Hellenistic Period, wealthy Macedonians buried their dead with elaborate gold jewelry. However, by the late Hellenistic Period, rich burial goods were less common. This modification most likely signals a decrease in disposable wealth and, perhaps, a change in burial customs

Alexander the Great Gold stater, 286-81 BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Hellenistic Period Art And Sculpture 

Hellenistic Period art is unique due to its innovative approach to its classical prototype, quite diverse in subject matter and style. It bears a strong sense of history, though touched by its universal influences remained a strict acolyte of the Greek traditions. Museums and libraries appear for the first time in the metropolitan centers, such as those at Alexandria and Pergamon. 

Hellenistic artists copied and adapted earlier styles, and made great innovations. Representations of Greek gods took on new forms, more liberal and secular, the old religion shocked by the popular image of a nude Aphrodite or of the young amorous child, her tender companion, Eros. Also prominent in Hellenistic art are representations of Dionysus, the god of wine and legendary conqueror of the East, as well as those of Hermes, the god of commerce. 

The Winged Victory of Samothrace, 190 BC, The Louvre, Paris

The Winged Victory of Samothrace is unequivocally a masterpiece of Hellenistic sculpture. The figure creates a spiraling effect in a composition that opens out in various directions. The slanted angles of the wings, the placement of the left leg, and the clothing blowing between the goddess’s legs renders the statue fluid and in motion. The nude female body is revealed by the transparency of the wet fabric that scantily covers the body, much in the manner of classical works from the fifth century BC, while the style of her clothes is typical of the fourth century. In the treatment of the tunic-sometimes brushing against the body, sometimes billowing in the wind-the sculptor has been remarkably skillful in creating visual effects. The style is characteristic of the school of sculptors from the island of Rhodes, with a unique sense of volume, rich in decoration and expressive movement (180-160 BC).

The geographical expansion offered also a broader range of subject matter with no precedent in earlier Greek art. There are representations of unorthodox subjects, such as grotesques, children, and elderly people. New images appear with an ethnic diversity, mostly derived from Egypt with African influences. 

Marble group statue of Aphrodite, Pan and Eros, from Delos, 100 BC, The National Archaeological Museum of Athens

This group statue, made of Parian marble, was found in the sacred island of Delos. Traces of color are still faintly visible. It depicts a nude of goddess Aphrodite attempting to repel the erotic advances of the goat-footed god Pan. She holds her sandal threateningly in her right hand, while the winged god Eros comes to her rescue.

Art collection clearly dates back to the Hellenistic society; the rich elite became art collectors, who commissioned copies of original works of art and copies of earlier Greek statues. Private homes and gardens were exquisitely decorated with luxury goods, furniture lost its utilitarian function and became an art object, stone and bronze sculpture decorated gardens and interiors, and pottery was massively produced to meet the increased market demand. The phenomenon of replicating and mass production of art objects had just begun.

Head of Ptolemy the III, 246–222 BC, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles

This Greek Ptolemaic Head portrays Ptolemy III Euergetes (246-221 B.C) beardless, short-haired, and with the head rotated to the side and a slightly raised chin. This is a style prototyped for Alexander the Great and continued by his descendants. A diadem (crown) adorned the head as the twelve holes around the hairline indicate. 

Roman Collectors

The most fervent collectors of Greek art were the Romans. In the 1st century BC, Rome became the center of Hellenistic art, with prolific production numbers, and a great number of Greek artists relocated to work there. 

Greek Hellenistic Marble Head of Apollo, 2nd-1st century BC, Private Collection

The Romans decorated their townhouses and country villas with Greek sculptures in unprecedented abundance and a variety of styles. The wall paintings (frescoes) from the villa at Boscoreale, a country estate north of Pompeii, is one of the most indicative examples of interior decoration. It reverberates visibly the Hellenistic Macedonian royal paintings, and the magnificent bronzes unearthed testify to the refined classical taste that the Roman aristocracy adopted in their homes. 

Wall Panel from a Black Ground Frescoed Room in a villa from Boscoreale, Italy, 1-50 AD, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles

The most sought after material for statues was the Parian marble, named after the Cycladic island of Paros that produced it in ancient times and still produces today. This type of marble is translucent, can capture the light, and is the perfect medium to express the exquisite beauty that classical and Hellenistic sculptures represent.

One of the most famous Hellenistic masterpieces in Parian Marble is the statue of Venus of Milos, currently in the Louvres Museum in Paris.

The French took the statue, discovered in 1820 by a Greek farmer on the island of Milos, and since 1821, it adorns the Louvre’s Museum in Paris. Venus (Aphrodite in Greek) the goddess of Love has been the subject of many works of art during the classical period, but this statue is dated circa 100 BC., with innovative Hellenistic features such as the spiral composition, the positioning in space, and the fall of the drapery over the hips.

Venus de Milo by Alexandros of Antioch, 100 BC, The Louvre, Paris

The goddess originally wore metal jewelry — bracelet, earrings, and headband — of which only the fixation holes remain. The marble was probably decorated in color and its arms are missing. 

It is also common for the period to produce statues representing groups, ensembles of figures. One of the most prominent ensembles is displayed at the Vatican Museum. It illustrates the myth of Laocoön who was a Trojan warrior and a priest of Apollo and his two sons, while two serpents sent by Athena and Poseidon attack them. The wrath of the gods against Laocoön is because he warned the Trojans against taking in the wooden horse left by the Greeks outside the city gates.

The Laocoön Group by the sculptors of Rhodes, 40-30 BC, The Vatican Museum, Vatican City

Another medium widely used in sculpture was bronze with inlaid copper. The below statue of a naked youth, a victorious athlete of the Olympic Games wearing the symbolic olive wreath, his prize from the Games, found in the sea in international waters, part of a ship wreckage. It is one of the few life-size Greek bronzes to have survived, thus, it provides much information on the technology of ancient bronze casting

He stands with his weight on his right leg and the eyes of the statue were originally inlaid with colored stone or glass paste, and the nipples were inlaid with copper, creating naturalistic color contrasts.

Statue of a Victorious Youth, 300–100 BC, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles

Hellenistic Mosaics

We will conclude this expedition into the vast and rich era of Hellenistic Greece by visiting the renowned site of the House of Faun in Pompeii. The mosaic, the largest in the house, made with the use of about one million tesserae, depicts the battle of Issus that marked the end of the Persian Empire, where Alexander the Great defeated Darius III in 333 BC. The mosaic is a copy of the 3rd-century work by Philoxenos of Eretria from the 4th century BC., or a copy of an anonymous Hellenistic painting was used as the model.

Battle of Issus between Alexander and Darius III, 100 BC, Archaeological Museum of Napoli

The mosaic, on the left side, shows Alexander who, astride his horse Bucephalus, leads his men against the fleeing Persians. Darius on his war chariot is retreating but his figure stands prominent opposite Alexander. Between the two is a Persian prince who displays his loyalty by using his body to shield his king, while a soldier offers him his own horse, thus condemning himself to certain death.

The use of very small tesserae (small pieces of stone, glass, or other material for mosaics), a technique known as opus vermiculatum, enabled the artisan to render all the effects of light, color hues, the details of the armor and the faces, and even the moods.

The End Of the Hellenistic Period

The Battle of Actium, 2 September 31 BC by Lorenzo A. Castro, 1672, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London

The Battle of Actium in 31 BC. signifies the end of the Hellenistic Period. Ptolemaic rule of Egypt ended when Octavian, who later became the emperor Augustus, defeated Marc Antony’s fleet. The Romans from thereon ruled Egypt and gradually annexed most of the Provinces of the old Empire.

The importance of Greek art and culture remained strong during the Roman Imperial period, the Greek language remained the language of academics and Roman youths were taught Greek as part of their refined education. For centuries, Roman artists continued to make works of art in the Hellenistic tradition.

Alexander created and united a vast empire, he amalgamated non-Greek with Greek, not purely Hellenic, but Hellenistic. His Aristotelian education instilled in him the great notion “that the whole world is a whole unit, and all things may be brought together”. (Alexander the Great, by Plutarch translated into English by John Dryden)

MARIA DRAGATAKIS

Maria Dragatakis lives and works in Athens, Greece as an International Productions Coordinator for a local theater company. She holds a Bachelor of Arts in Classics and Classical Languages and Literatures from Ohio University. Art is her passion which she is been blessed to relish in her daily tasks, in the world of the theater, and the city she lives in with its rich cultural heritage. Her work has taken her around the world in a never-ending journey, always seeking the finer sentiment of euphoria that only art can produce.

https://www.thecollector.com/hellenistic-art/